Sri Lankan elephant

The Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian elephant, and native to Sri Lanka. Since 1986, Elephas maximus has been listed as endangered by IUCN as the population has declined by at least 50% over the last three generations, estimated to be 60–75 years. The species is pre-eminently threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation.^[1]

Elephas maximus maximus is the type subspecies of the Asian elephant, first described by Carl Linnaeus under the binominal Elephas maximus in 1758.^[2]

The Sri Lankan elephant population is now largely restricted to a few National Parks and Nature Reserves. Udawalawe National Park,Yala National Park, Wilpattu National Park and Minneriya National Park are prime locations for spotting elephants.

Characteristics[edit]

In general, Asian elephants are smaller than African elephants and have the highest body point on the head. The tip of their trunk has one finger-like process. Their back is convex or level. Females are usually smaller than males, and have short or no tusks.^[3]

Sri Lankan elephants are the largest subspecies reaching a shoulder height of between 2 and 3.5 m (6.6 and 11.5 ft), weigh between 2,000 and 5,500 kg (4,400 and 12,000 lb), and have 19 pairs of ribs. Their skin color is darker than of indicus and of sumatranus with larger and more distinct patches of depigmentation on ears, face, trunk and belly.^[4]

Only 7% of males bear tusks.^[5] However, according to the elephant census conducted in 2011 by the Wildlife Conservation Department of Sri Lanka, only 2% of the total population are tuskers.

The elephant population in the National Parks of Sri Lanka is somewhat diminutive in stature when compared both with historical accounts dating back to 200 BC and with the early photographs taken in 19th century during the time of colonial British rule of the island. The smaller size could possibly be the end result of a long-continued process of removing the physically best specimens from the potential breeding-stock through hunting or domestication (see insular dwarfism).

Distribution and habitat[edit]

A herd of elephants in Yala National Park

Elephant calf in Udawalawe National Park

Elephants bathing

Elephants are restricted mostly to the lowlands in the dry zone where they are still fairly widespread in north, south, east, north-western, north-central and south-eastern Sri Lanka. With the exception of a small remnant population in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary elephants are restricted mostly to the lowland in the dry zone but are absent from the wet zone of the country. With the exception of Wilpattu andRuhuna National Parks, all other protected areas are less than 1,000 km² (390 sq mi) in extent. Many areas are less than 50 km²(19 sq mi), and hence not large enough to accommodate the entire home ranges of elephants that use them. In the MahaweliDevelopment Area, protected areas such as Wasgomuwa National Park, Flood Plains National Park, Somawathiya National Park, andTrikonamadu Nature Reserve have been linked resulting in an overall area of 1,172 km² (453 sq mi) of contiguous habitat for elephants. Nevertheless, about 65% of the elephants range extends outside protected areas.^[6]

Ecology and behaviour[edit]

Elephants are classified as megaherbivores and consume up to 150 kg (330 lb) of plant matter per day. As generalists they feed on a wide variety of food plants. In Sri Lanka's northwestern region, feeding behaviour of elephants was observed during the period of January 1998 to December 1999. The elephants fed on a total of 116 plant species belonging to 35 families including 27 species of cultivated plants. More than half of the plants were non tree species, i.e. shrub, herb, grass, or climbers. More than 25% of the plant species belonged to the family Leguminosae, and 19% of the plant species belonged to the family of true grasses. The presence of cultivated plants in dung does not result solely due to raiding of crops as it was observed that elephants feed on leftover crop plants in fallow chenas. Juvenile elephants tend to feed predominantly on grass species.^[7]

Food resources are abundant in regenerating forests, but at low density in mature forests. Traditional slash-and-burn agriculture creates optimum habitat for elephants through promoting successional vegetation.^[6]

Population trend[edit]

In the historical past, elephants were found in the dry zone, the lowland wet zone, as well as in the cold damp forests of the mountains in the island. They enjoyed wide distribution and good numbers from sea level to the highest mountain ranges. Until 1830, elephants were so plentiful that their destruction was encouraged by the Government, and rewards were paid for any that was killed. Their disappearance from the montane zone began with the largescale clearance of forests for the planting of coffee, and afterwards tea, during the first half of the 19th century. Even by the turn of the 20th century, elephants were distributed over much of the island.^[6]

Elephant populations in Sri Lanka were seriously depleted through capture and slaughter in the 19th century. Between 1829 and 1855 alone, more than 6,000 elephants were captured and shot.^[8]

Size of wild elephant populations in Sri Lanka estimated at

• 12,000 to 14,000 in the early 19th century;^{[citation needed]}
• 10,000 in the early 20th century;^[9]
• 7,000 to 8,000 in around 1920;^{[citation needed]}
• between 1,745 and 2,455 individuals in 1969;^[10]
• between 2,500 and 3,435 in 1987;^[10]
• 1,967 in June 1993 fragmented in five regions;^[11]
• between 3,150 and 4,400 in 2000;^[12]
• 3150 in 2006;^{[citation needed]}
• 2900-3000 in 2007.^{[citation needed]}
• 5879 in total, 2011 elephant census

Threats[edit]

Bathing elephant. Udawalawe National Park. Sri Lanka

Ivory trade in Sri Lanka had a very long history for more than 2000 years. During the Colonial rule in 19th century and early 20th century many bull elephants were killed by trophy hunters. Major Thomas Rogers is credited with having shot over 1,500 elephants. This works out to an average of one elephant being killed by him every day for four years. Two others, Captain Galleway and Major Skinner are reputed to have shot half that number each. Many other ‘sportsmen' have shot in the region of 250-300 animals during this time.^[13] At the turn of the twentieth century, the area currently known as Ruhuna National Park was the Resident Sportsman's shooting reserve, a wild country reserved for the sporting pleasure of British residents in Sri Lanka.^[14]

During the armed conflict in Sri Lanka, elephants were maimed or killed by land mines. Between 1990 and 1993, a total of 165 wild elephants died as a result of gunshot injuries. In 1994, at least 96 elephants were killed by poachers or land mines, and up to twenty elephants have fallen victims to land mines and been crippled.^[15]

Today, given the rarity of tuskers in Sri Lanka, ivory poaching is not a major conservation issue. Nevertheless, some trade in ivory still goes on. Kandy has been identified as the centre for such illegal trade. The greatest threat to elephants comes from an expanding human population and its demand for land. Loss of significant extents of elephant range to development continues currently, with a number of irrigation and development projects leading to the conversion of more elephant ranges to irrigated agriculture and settlements.^[6]

Between 1999 to the end of 2006 every year nearly 100 wild elephants were killed. Elephants are killed to protect crops and houses. Other threats are poaching, deforestation, drought and starvation. During drought seasons many elephants damage agricultural land for food. Nearly 80 elephants were killed in north western Sri Lanka, 50 in south and east, and another 30 in other parts of the country, totaling 160 elephant deaths in 2006 alone.^{[citation needed]}

Conservation[edit]

Elephas maximus is listed on CITES Appendix I.^[1]

The elephant conservation strategy of the Department of Wildlife Conservation aims at conserving as many viable populations as possible in as wide a range of suitable habitats as is feasible. This means protecting elephants both within the system of protected areas and as many animals outside these areas that the land can support and landholders will accept, and not restricting elephants to the protected area network alone.^[6]

• In the Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage in Kegalle injured elephants are treated, and orphaned baby elephants cared for. Nearly 70 elephants live here. Captive breeding is also going on.
• The Udawalawe Elephant Transit Centre in Udawalawe National Park is a rehabilitation centre, where orphaned elephant calves are being kept until they can be released into the wild.

Under the British rulers, the elephant population decreased massively, as elephants were killed for their tusks. This is the main reason for their reduction of population.^{[citation needed]}

Cultural depiction[edit]

Sri Lankan elephants at the Esala Perahera

Elephants were a common in Sinhalese heraldry for over two thousand years and remained so through British colonial rule. The coat of arms and the flag of Ceylon Government from 1875 to 1948 included an elephant and even today many institutions use the Sri Lankan elephant in their coat of arms and insignia.

An important cultural symbiosis has continued to exist between the elephant and humans for over two thousand years – no religious procession was complete without its retinue of elephants, and many large Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka had their own elephants.

References[edit]

1. ^ ^a b c Choudhury, A., Lahiri Choudhury, D.K., Desai, A., Duckworth, J.W., Easa, P.S., Johnsingh, A.J.T., Fernando, P., Hedges, S., Gunawardena, M., Kurt, F., Karanth, U., Lister, A., Menon, V., Riddle, H., Rübel, A., Wikramanayake, E. (2008). "Elephas maximus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. International Union for Conservation of Nature.
2. ^ Linnaei, C. (1760) Elephas maximus In: Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Halae Magdeburgicae. Page 33
3. ^ Shoshani, J., Eisenberg, J.F. (1982) Elephas maximus. Mammalian Species 182: 1–8
4. ^ Shoshani, J. (2006) Taxonomy, Classification, and Evolution of Elephants In: Fowler, M. E., Mikota, S. K. (eds.) Biology, medicine, and surgery of elephants. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0813806763. Pp. 3–14
5. ^ Jayewardene, J. (1994) The elephant in Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo
6. ^ ^{a b c d e} Santiapillai, C., Fernando, P., Gunewardene, M. (2006) A strategy for the conservation of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Number 25: 91–102
7. ^ Samansiri, K. A. P., Weerakoon, D. K. (2007) Feeding Behaviour of Asian Elephants in the Northwestern Region of Sri Lanka. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Number 2: 27–34
8. ^ Sukumar, R. (1993) The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management Second edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052143758X
9. ^ Wanigasundara, M. (1991) Sri Lanka - Elephants slaughtered in civil war. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Number 6: 16–17
10. ^ ^a b Kotagama, S. (1991) Sri Lanka - Enhancing the survival of elephants. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Number 6: 24
11. ^ Hendavitharana, W., Dissanayake, S., de Silva, M., Santiapillai, C. (1994) The Survey of elephants in Sri Lanka. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Number 12: 1–30
12. ^ Kemf, E., Santiapillai, C. (2000) Asian elephants in the wild. A WWF species status report. WWF, Gland, Switzerland.
13. ^ Jayewardene, Jayantha (2012). "Elephants in Sri Lankan History and Culture". Living Heritage Trust. Retrieved 2012-08-02.
14. ^ Katugaha, H. I. E.(1997) Tuskers of Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Number 18: 67–68
15. ^ Alahakoon, J., Santiapillai, C. (1997) Elephants: Unwitting victims in Sri Lanka's civil war. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Number 18: 63–65

Madhu Church Sri Lanka

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrine_of_Our_Lady_of_Madhu

http://www.srilankan.com/en_uk/lk

Colombo

Situated in the western province of Sri Lanka, Colombo is the island's capital. Diverse and vibrant, the city is the administrative and economic center of the country. 

The history of the city itself dates to the 5th century. Due to its prime location on the western coast of Sri Lanka, Colombo grew as a seaport for trade between Asia and the West. It was used by the Moors, Romans, Arabs, Persians, and Chinese ships for the island's much sought after cinnamon and gems. 

It is said that the name Colombo was first introduced by the Portuguese in 1505 and is believed to be derived from the classical Sinhalese name 'Kolon thota' (port on the river Kelani) or 'Kola-amba-thota' (harbor with leafy mango trees). 

In 1593, the Portuguese, who had gained control of the Western coast of Sri Lanka, made Colombo their center. Subsequently, the Dutch, in 1638, joined with King Rajasingha II (King of Kandy) to battle and defeat the Portuguese in 1639. Colombo remained a central hub for the Dutch and the Dutch Maritime Provinces, controlled by the Dutch East India Company until 1796. At this point, the British captured the city, and in 1815, proclaimed Colombo the capital of Ceylon. It continues to remain so, even after Independence from the British in 1948. 

The city offers historical monuments, colonial architecture, beaches, and fine dining and shopping. Its architecture has been influenced by Portuguese, Dutch, and British colonization. The British influence is clearly visible in the buildings located in the Fort, an area where the larger business houses and the stock exchange are situated. Close by is Pettah, a bustling marketplace with each section of the bazaar selling its own specialty, ranging from food items to shoes to gold; wholesale markets are found here. 

The New Parliament is situated at Sri Jayawardenapura on the outskirts of Colombo, while the Old Parliament on Galle Road is now the Presidential Secretariat. 

Galle Face Green is where the locals gather on the weekend to enjoy the cool breeze from the Indian Ocean and a stroll along the promenade. Nearby are temples, mosques, and churches catering to the diverse population that enrich the culture of the city. 

Colombo is also your gateway to Sri Lanka. So, spend a day or two, and enjoy the blend of East and West. 

Wilpattu National Park

Situated 176 km. north of Colombo, Wilpattu is approximately 1,908 sq.km. in extent. It has a dense jungle cover which makes it a more exciting park where animals have to be tracked. There are numerous delightful little lakes - known as villus - and the leopard and sloth bear are the speciality rather than elephants.

Homeless elephants find refuge in Sri Lanka

They say an elephant never forgets, but what happens when an elephant is forgotten? In Sri Lanka, abandoned elephants who cannot survive in the wild find refuge at the Elephant Farm at Pinnewela (near Rambukkana).

People feed, groom and care for 46 elephants on the farm. The babies drink milk warmed to body temperature from super-size bottles, seven per feeding.
"Maybe at first they can't find their own food. So we bring it to them here," said Idris Salley, a caretaker at the elephant farm.
Outcasts like Raja, an old blind elephant who was wounded by hunters, live on the farm, as does an elephant rumored to have killed more than a dozen people.
The farm supports itself in part through tourists, who come for a rare close-up view of the animals.
The orphans arrive from across the country, rescued from remote villages where they have lost their mothers to quarry accidents, shootings or lynch mobs.
At the Elephant Orphanage, deep in the tropical hill country of central Sri Lanka, the motherless calves are raised by human foster parents who ply them with bottled milk five times a day and give them an occasional swig of beer in an effort to help preserve Asia's dwindling wild-elephant population.
"Without the orphanage, most of them would be left to die or be killed," said Wijepala Ranbanda, curator of the elephant orphanage.
In Sri Lanka and throughout Asia, some of the world's larger remaining wild-elephant herds - about 50,000 animals across the continent - face threats to their survival from burgeoning human populations that are bulldozing forests into farmland and severing centuries-old migration routes with highways and urban development.
In recent months the competition for space between man and beast has led to unprecedented clashes as the giant pachyderms, squeezed out of their native habitat, have attacked villagers, raided farm crops and, recently, stormed the outskirts of Calcutta.
India is home to an estimated 40 per cent of the world's Asianelephant population, which is overwhelmingly wild, with only a few thousand domesticated and used for work or religious purposes.

"The scenario is rather bleak," said J. C. Daniel, a member of the steering committee of India's Project Elephant, a new government effort to protect wild elephants. "The main problem facing us today is habitat destruction. There is frequent straying into human settlements, where they raid the crops and people shoot them."

A single rogue elephant was blamed for the deaths of 27 villagers during a 10-day rampage in the northeastern Indian state of Assam last fall. Other marauding elephants also attacked farmers, razed crops and guzzled barrels of rice beer stored in village huts. The government dispatched mounted troopers to hunt down the beasts.
In January, panic-stricken residents of Calcutta erected giant walls along the city's borders to stop a herd of elephants that had strayed from customary migration paths.

"There has been a human explosion in the area," said Ashish Ghosh, director of the Calcutta-based Zoological Survey of India, which has been studying elephant-migration patterns. "There have been more and more disturbances in their normal migration routes. This is the first time in recent memory that these herds have come so close to urban habitat."

In Sri Lanka, a small island nation that is home to an estimated 3,000 wild elephants, the problem of diminishing habitat is even more acute. The island has been stripped of 50 per cent of its forest land in the last three decades, dramatically affecting the elephant herds.
"They want to roam, and they overlap with the people," said curator Ranbanda of the Elephant Orphanage, which was created in 1975 by government officials worried about habitat encroachment.
In the last 19 years, the number of deserted, maimed and impaired elephants that are provided foster care has jumped from about 10 a year to 56 last year. Some of the orphans raised in the sanctuary of palm groves and rolling grassland are now rearing their own babies at the orphanage.
The sheer size of the elephants makes them far more susceptible to the problems of human encroachment than tigers, rhinoceroses and other endangered animals that tend to live in small pockets, wildlife officials said.
The orphanage's newest arrival weighed 60 kilograms (132 pounds) when she was born nearly two months ago. She will drink about 25 litres of milk a day until she's weaned after 4 1/2 years. 

Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is an island that is captivating both by its name - that means Land of Splendour - and by what it actually offers to the visitor. The attractions of Sri Lanka - known to the world by several names from ancient days - have been known through the centuries. While legend has it that this is the Lanka of the Ramayana, it is the name by which it has always been known to its own people.

The Romans called it Taprobane, marked on Ptolemy's map of the world, derived from "Tambapanni" - land of copper coloured earth and lotuses given by the first known migrants from North India. The Arab traders of the past called in Serentivu and Serendib - island of delight, which gave birth to the English word Serendipity - the prospect of discovering pleasant surprises. The Portuguese corrupted this to Ceilao; the Dutch to Ceilan and the British called it Ceylon. But the people of the East, as distant as Indonesia, always knew the island by the name given by its own people - Sri Lanka.

Almost dangling like a pendant from the southern tip of India, Sri Lanka has been known as the Peal of the Orient for its variety of attractions. It is not a mere tropical isle known for sun, sea and sands, although it has all this in plenty. In fact the island has over 1400 km of sunkissed beach. The warm waters of the Indian ocean that offers attractions for surfing, undersea diving, the fascination of coral reefs, and also for the more adventurous, the chance of exploring the wrecks from Portuguese galleons to British warships of World War 2. But its attractions are not limited to those of the sea and sunny beaches fringed by coconut palms.

Sri Lanka has much more to offer, and in a compact package too. Within four hours one could drive from the sunny coast to cool, cloud-kissed mountains, where the best tea in the world grows. For miles around one could see hills and valleys covered by an unending carpet of tea, and enjoy the aroma of the fresh tea leaves.

In this enchanting hill country of Sri Lanka is located Adam's Peak, the only mountain in the world hallowed by the believers of the four major faiths - Buddhism, Islam, Hinduism and Christianity. Buddhists believe that a depression on the summit of the peak is a footprint of the Buddha himself, placed there on one of his visits to the island.

Those of the Islamic faith believe it to be the footprint of Adam, the first man, who stood there on one leg for a year, in repentance after being banished from the Garden of Eden. To Hindus it is the footprint of the Lord Shiva, and they call it "Shivanadi Paadam". Eastern Christians believe the depression to have been caused by the knee of St. Thomas, the Apostle of Christ who came to preach in India and the East, as he knelt down in repentance for his doubting the divinity of Christ. Nowhere in the world do the four major faiths mingle in this manner, and it is from the springs at Adam's Peak or "Sri Paada" (the sacred footprint) as referred to by Buddhists, that the four main rivers of the country begin their flow to the sea, meandering through mountain and valley. Not without reason has Sri Lanka also been referred to by travel writers of the past as "this other Eden".

Traveling down the mountain slopes one comes to Ratnapura - the City of Gems - known from ancient times and mentioned in the tales of the Sheherazade or Arabian Nights. It was to Ratnapura in Sri Lanka that Sinbad came to obtain sapphires, rubies, cat's eyes and other gems of priceless value. It was from Sri Lanka and Ratnapura that King Solomon obtained the gems and other gifts such as peacocks and elephants to woo the Queen of Sheba. Ratnapura and its surrounds still abound in gems, much sought after by the world. Tradition has it, that the gems that are found in the riverbeds around Ratnapura, are in fact the crystallized tears of Adam & Eve as they wept after being banished from the real Eden to this other Eden.

Always a few hours driving distance away is the wildlife of Sri Lanka, given sanctuary in many national parks, and strict nature reserves. Here one can see the elephant and leopard roam in freedom, as do the sloth bear, the spotted deer and Sambhur. There are peacocks aplenty displaying the vibrant colours of their tails to attract mates, as well as many species of parrot, stork, swift, the Brahiminy Kite, the Fishing Eagle, the colourful Kingfishers and Woodpeckers, and the unique tailor birds and weavers to name only a few. The inviting warm tropical climate of Sri Lanka also brings in a large number of winged visitors from as far away as Siberia to escape the cold of the winter, the most colourful of these being the Siberian Flamingo. There are also plenty of tern and wild duck that come here during the winter adding to the island's own 150 plus species of indigenous birds.

By far the biggest attraction of Sri Lanka is its people. The Sinhalese, Tamils and Muslims are all friendly by nature and the country has an unsullied record of hospitality over the centuries. It is a land of smiles and a warm welcome, observed by Anton Chekov, Bernard Shaw and Sir Arthur C. Clarke who has made Sri Lanka his home, and the inspiration for at least two of his books. It is known as a land of tolerance that has been tempered over the years by the teachings of the Buddha. Its overall Buddhist culture, with a lasting blend of Hindu influence has been the source of an ancient civilization, with masterpieces of sculpture, construction, and irrigation that have lasted to this day in the several ancient and medieval cities that bear testimony to Sri Lanka's historic splendour. The huge irrigation tanks that dammed rivers and also harnessed the rain from the 1st Century BC are known as marvels of a unique hydraulic civilization and still provide the water for the rice field of today. At the beginning of a new millennium, Sri Lanka that has known much of history, still beckons as a land of splendour far beyond the limits of a tropical isle.

Geography
Sri Lanka is an island situated at the southern tip of india in the Indian Ocean. From North to South - 432 km From East to West - 224 km Total area - 65, 525 sq. km

Population
The majority of Sri Lankans are Singhalese and Buddhists, but the total population is a mixture of Tamil, Moor, Burgher (people of european descent). Sinhala, Tamil and English are the national languages. English is spoken throughout the island.

Climate
The south-west monsoon brings rain to the western, southern and central regions from May to July, while the north-eastern monsoon occurs in the north and east in December and January. The weather is finest in the coastal regions and hill country of the south-west from October to March. The temperature in the lowlands averages 27 degrees Celsius. However, temperatures fall rapidly with altitude. In Kandy the temperature on average is around 20 degrees Celsius and in Nuwara Eliya it is often below 15 degrees Celsius.

Time
Sri Lanka is +5 ½ Greenwich Mean Time.

Clothing
Lightweight clothing is recommended. It is a good idea to be conservatively dressed on the streets and shorts are not permitted in places of worship. Footwear off in temples. A light sweater is recommended in the hill country. Bring rain proofs, avoid synthetics.

Telephones
Card operated telephone booths and cyber cafes can be found in most towns. Cards can be obtained at the nearest shop or kiosk. Mobile telephone rentals are also freely available.

Health
It is safer not to drink water from the tap though water in major towns are treated. Boiled water, bottled water and water and ice at reputed hotels are safe. Government run hospitals and a number of private hospitals are available in the event of an emergency. Most hospitals are well equipped with medical specialists on call at any time of day. Reputed hotels have a Doctor on call.

Electricity
210-240 volts, 50Hz, Alternating Current / Plug sockets take round pins.

Currency
The currency in Sri Lanka is the Rupee. The value fluctuates with world market rates. All commercial banks are authorized to exchange money and so are most tourist class hotels. American Express, Master Card and Visa Card are also widely accepted.

Visas
Nationals of most countries may obtain visas on arrival, at the airport. It is best to check with your nearest Sri Lankan diplomatic mission or consulate. The visa that is issued at the point of entry is only valid for 30 days. Extensions can be obtained, if required, from the Department of Immigration & Emigration in Colombo.

Shopping
Sri Lanka offers good bargains in ceramics, garments, leather goods, gems etc.

Communications
The general post office is situated in the city of Colombo. Other towns have central post offices. Privately run agency post offices, cyber cafes, communication centers also function throughout most of the country.

Photography and Video
Photography and video filming often require permits at historical and sacred sites- it is advisable to check with the officials at each place. Film rolls and videotape are freely available in all main cities.